Today’s post was written by Katherine Terry, Archives Technician at the National Archives at St. Louis.
The Sinking of the Muskogee
The S.S. Muskogee was a merchant tanker built in 1913 by the Sun Shipbuilding Company in Chester, Pennsylvania. It was originally constructed as an oil tanker and operated by the Pure Oil Company to transport its petroleum products. The United States increased its support for the Allies in 1941, drawing American merchant ships into the growing conflict. Like many other commercial vessels, the Muskogee was repurposed for wartime service as the U.S. needed supply ships to support military operations.
Despite its importance, the Muskogee was an unarmed vessel designed for efficiency rather than combat. Its speed was sufficient for commercial operations but slower than the warships patrolling the seas. Tankers were also particularly vulnerable targets because disrupting fuel shipments could destroy entire military and industrial operations. To meet the demands of war, the Muskogee continued its routine voyages, ensuring that the oil supply chains remained intact.
On March 22, 1942, the Muskogee was sailing through the Atlantic, carrying its cargo of petroleum products, when the ship was spotted by U-123, a German submarine under the command of Kapitanleutnant Reinhard Hardegen. Hardegen and his crew had been conducting attacks along the U.S. East Coast and into the Atlantic as part of Operation Drumbeat, Germany’s aggressive campaign against Allied shipping.
At approximately 11:40 a.m., Hardegen ordered a torpedo launch against the ship. A missile struck Muskogee on her starboard side, and it quickly began taking on water. In only 16 minutes, the ship had disappeared beneath the waves. What makes the Muskogee’s fate especially haunting is what happened next. The German crew surfaced, and a Kriegsmarine war correspondent who happened to be on board captured a poignant photograph: a group of the surviving crewmen floating towards them.
After giving the men some food and water, Hardegen then turned them away, knowing there were no vessels nearby to mount a rescue. Hardegen later recounted that he did not take Muskogee’s crew prisoner because the U-boat lacked the space. The photograph remains a singular visual record of a merchant crew lost to enemy action–a moment frozen in time–the last anyone would ever see of these men who sacrificed their lives to keep the war effort moving. Despite efforts to identify the individuals in the image, only four of the seven have been definitively named.
Merchant Marines in WWII
The U.S. Merchant Marines played a crucial but often overlooked role in World War II. Unlike the Navy or Marine Corps, merchant mariners were civilian employees of transportation companies, yet they faced combat conditions daily while conveying troops, fuel, weapons, and supplies across hostile waters. Military operations would have stalled without their efforts, leaving frontline forces without the resources needed to fight.
Merchant ships were prime targets for enemy submarines, aircraft, and surface raiders. German U-boats prowled the Atlantic, sinking American and Allied vessels with devastating efficiency. Merchant mariners braved some of the most dangerous routes with no defensive armament in the early years of the war and only minimal protection later.
Their service came at a heavy cost. Approximately 9,500 merchant mariners died during the war–a higher casualty rate than any branch of the U.S. military. Thousands more were wounded, captured, or stranded at sea. Yet, because they were civilians, they were not granted military benefits after the war. Many merchant mariners did not receive official recognition until decades after the war. Today, researchers, historians, and descendants can explore these mariners’ untold histories through records series like the Merchant Marine Licensing Files, which provide a wealth of personal and service information. These files document the careers of individual Merchant Marines, containing records of their training, licensing, and vessel assignments. Perhaps most strikingly (and unusually for personnel records of this era), they also include photographs. In the case of the Muskogee, they help put names to the individuals lost at sea, preserving their memory beyond a single wartime photograph.
Rediscovering Their History through Archives and Art
Because of the struggle of a son to reconnect with the parent he lost, as well as his meticulous research and recordkeeping, the Muskogee photograph will leave a lasting impression on history. William Betts’s son, George Betts, was only 17 when his father disappeared, presumed dead. He and the other Muskogee families were left in the dark as to the exact circumstances of their loved ones’ deaths. As an adult, he sought to learn their story. He ended up communicating extensively with the commanding officer of the German submarine that killed his father—learning the circumstances of that fateful day.
Many of his notes reside in his correspondence with the U.S. Coast Guard, which–through the National Maritime Center–retains custody of William Betts’s Licensing File. Once he learned the story, George Betts spent the rest of his life trying to ensure the other families found out what had happened to their missing men. In doing so, he also began to uncover the mystery of who the men in the photograph were. Four men would eventually be definitively identified by their next of kin.
The photograph was also the primary source of inspiration for the American Merchant Mariners’ Memorial, which stands in New York Harbor. The monument, designed by sculptor Marisol Escobar and dedicated in 1991, depicts three Merchant Mariners on a sinking boat, with one reaching toward a fourth crewman drowning below. The memorial is a tribute to the courage of those who kept the lifelines of supply and commerce open during wartime.
The National Archives plays a crucial role in preserving the records of mariners such as those lost in the Muskogee sinking. The Licensing Files, located at the National Archives at St. Louis, make up only one series researchers can utilize to learn more about the history of the Merchant Marines. Learn about the National Archives’ collections to begin your own research journey here: https://www.archives.gov/research/military/coast-guard/merchant-marine-personnel
Thanks to Jason Atkinson (National Archives at College Park), Shane Bell (National Archives at Atlanta), Nathaniel Wiltzen (National Archives at Boston), and M. C. Lewis (United States Coast Guard) for their reference assistance. Thank you, also, to Corey Stewart (National Archives at St. Louis) and Sarah Garner (National Archives and Records Administration) for proofreading and to Sarah Law (National Personnel Records Center) for assisting with visuals.